The Indus Civilisations

A view of houses among the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro. Many large covered drains were constructed with corbelled arches. These drains ran beneath streets and lanes and were large enough for workmen to enter and clear any obstructions.

The first expansion of civilisation beyond the Middle East was to the Indian Subcontinent. From about 2500 BC to 2000BC there flourished in the Indus Valley an interesting and unique civilisation with strong ties to Mesopotamia. Its cities have been uncovered mainly in present day Pakistan. The two main centres uncovered so far were Mohenjo-daro in the south and Harappa in the north.

The big cities were well planned, with a citadel to the west and residential quarries to the east. Mohenj0-daro covered an area of 60 hectares and possessed an impressive bathing installation most likely for ritual use. In Harappa, large granaries have been found north of the citadel, with adjoining workers' quarters which indicate a relatively high standard of living. Wheat and barley were grown, also peas, sesame and cotton and perhaps also rice. Buffaloes and fowl were the usual domestic animals. Tools were made of bronze.

Thousands of seals have been found, many with an inscription but no writing on sherds uncovered. The pictures on the seals show some gods and various animals, such as tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses and buffaloes. Maritime trade with Mesopotamia seems to have been lively. Archaeologists have assumed that the Sumerians influenced the early Indus valley civilisations. overland trade was plied with Persia and Afghanistan. No signs of writing have been uncovered in the upper (later) layers of these sites and the local civilisations seem to have declined and disintegrated around 2000BC.

India was invaded from the Northwest after 1500BC. The newcomers formed the eastern branch of the great Indo-European movement, which left a common cultural heritage from Greece, through Asia Minor and Iran to India. They called themselves "Aryans". They arrived via Central Asia and entered India from the northwest. They moved only slowly down the Indus valley and eastwards along the Ganges. They were cattle-owning half nomads.

For a long time, agriculture, and not urban life, was typical of the Vedic culture (as their civilisation was called). Its language was Sanskrit, used by the educated upper classes, in which the Vedic literature is composed. Initially, this was an oral tradition - like the Iliad in Greece; its creations were written down only much later. Most of what we know of Aryan culture derives from the Rig-Veda, a collection of hymns transmitted orally by the Brahmans - the priestly caste. Other collections of hymns also survived. The great epic poems of Sanskrit, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, came much later, around the late first millennium BC.

The Aryan settlers tried not to mix with the dark-skinned older inhabitants of India. Although they did not succeed, they thereby initiated the caste system, which strikingly, for three millennia has survived all the changes in Indian society.


The roots of present-day Hinduism too, go back to Vedic culture. Some of the original deities mentioned in the Rig-Veda were Indra, Mitra and Varuna. Their names had also been mentioned in the inscriptions of the Middle Eastern Mitani Empire, showing the common roots of the early Indo-European cultures. In the Mahabharata such later deities as Krishna and Vishnu are already mentioned. The Aryan settlers made another important contribution by clearing land in the Ganges valley, for large scale agriculture.

The fully historical period in India begins around 600BC with the reintroduction of writing. Northern India was divided at that time into several separate states, none of which was of great size of importance. Thus Alexander the Great, on reaching India in 327 BC, did not have to face any unified resistance. But after his death there arose a strong state: the Maurya Empire (321-185BC), which subjected to its rule a greater part of India than any other state, prior to the arrival of Islam and the British.

Ancient Egypt: The Old and Middle Kingdoms

Among the harsh deserts of northeast Africa, it was only the River Nile which made the development of an advanced civilization possible. In the late sixth millennium BC, farming was introduced from Palestine. The unique advantages of the Nile made a dramatic increase of the population possible. In the fourth millennium villages increased in size, until the first walled towns appeared in southern Egypt, around 3300 BC. Some historians and archaeologists believe that these developments should be regarded as mainly local achievements, but others aver that it was the impact of influences from Sumer which caused the sudden flowering of civilization in the Nile valley. There is indeed evidence of Mesopotamian influence in the formative phase of Egyptian civilization. It also seems unlikely that the two earliest civilizations of the Middle East arose by chance, almost simultaneously, without influencing each other. Whether there was any connection or not, the Egyptian Civilization quickly developed in a very different manner to the Sumerian one.

Ancient Egyptian history is basically the story of three lengthy periods of flourishing civilization, divided by shorter, intermediate periods of decline and dissolution. The Old Kingdom lasted for 850 years, from 3100-2250BC) and was the most impressive era of Egyptian history. Most of the time the country was ruled by a strong, unified monarchy, engaged only rarely in foreign wars of conquest, being apparently content with what it had. Its capital was Memphis, near present day Cairo. The use of the waters of the Nile for agricultural purposes throughout the land, necessitated an efficient administration and a strong, central authority. It is therefore not surprising that the pharaohs were soon regarded as divine.

A detailed list of kings has come down from Hellenistic times, which conveniently groups these kings as dynasties. Six of them are allotted to the Old Kingdom. The central position of the king n Egyptian life is shown by the enormous effort invested in building his tomb. The fact of death was seemingly denied and great care was taken to equip him properly for his existence in the afterlife. Around 2650 BC, the Third Dynasty started to build stepped pyramids for the pharaoh’s last resting place, but these pyramids only reached their full development under the Fourth Dynasty kings Khufu around 2540 BC and Khafre. Khufu’s pyramid is 147 metres high and consists of over 2 million blocks each weighing 2.5 tonnes. It still is to this day, one the largest buildings ever erected.

Egyptian Art was perhaps even more impressive. It was highly refined even at its inception early in the third millennium. The statuary is striking and lifelike, retaining a timeless appeal throughout its 5000 year history. It shows, for instance, pharaohs and their families marching towards the beholder, full of self-assurance, in spite of their scant apparel. The scene depicts squatting scribes alertly awaiting dictation, erect officials in dignified pose, and conscientious women at work.

Society
Initially, Egypt was a nearly classless society, with no real aristocracy. The sons of simple farmers could, and occasionally did, ascend the ladder to very high office in an administrative career. But in time, a class of professional bureaucrats appeared, with sons following their fathers in government and administrative roles. It is interesting that there appear to have been no private merchants, with all mercantile activity being done on the king’s behalf by officials. The accumulation of massive private wealth was difficult due to the laws of inheritance, which obliged a father to divide his property equally among his sons. Nevertheless, by the end of the Old Kingdom, a new class of landowners was becoming increasingly powerful. At this time, real slavery was unknown, though free farmers were sometimes forced to become serfs.

Religion
Religion in ancient Egypt was a regional affair: Atum-Re was worshipped in Heliopolis; Ptah in the capital Memphis; Osiris and Isis in the Nile delta; Anubis, with his iconic dog-head, in assiut. Only Horus, the falcon headed one, was worshiped over a wide area. There was also a strong belief in life after death in a world presided over by Osiris, and it is for this belief that the Egyptian mummification burial techniques were practiced. Much of what is known about Egyptian religion is gathered from inscriptions in the small pyramids of the VI Dynasty. Hieroglyphic writing is quite unlike Sumerian cuneiform. Although it was written on papyrus rather than on clay tablets, it was only much later that phonetic-syllabics developed.

The conservative adherence to old habits and customs became even more typical of Egypt as her civilization grew older. At the close of the VIth Dynasty, too much government land had passed into private hands, seriously undermining the income of the state. Central power declines and pharaohs reigned for shorter periods, with local governments becoming over-powerful. A relatively short period of decline ensued. Prosperity and strong government were restored by the time of the Middle Kingdom (the XI-XII Dynasties, 2130 -1786 BC)). Its dominant characteristic was continuity. Changes in religion, in art, and in administration were minimal, but the social structure became more hierarchical. Literature flourished during this period, bringing us such tales as “Thousand and One Nights”. Science was also developing, and we have surviving mathematical writings from the time.

Foreign policy became more aggressive. Egyptian expeditions to Nubia and the Land of Canaan had, however, commenced already, during the VI Dynasty. They were continued and intensified during this time. Undoubtedly the darkest period in Ancient Egyptian history, was the second intermediary period of decline and chaos, after the Middle Kingdom came to an end. It lasted from 1786 to 1590 BC. For a while during the later stage of this period, Egypt was dominated by the Semitic Hyksos.

The Hittites

Early in the second millennium BC, there appeared in western Asia, peoples speaking Indo-European languages. Originally nomadic and pastoral they penetrated into Asia Minor and established there, the Hittite state, with its capital at Hattusas (around Turkey). By the middle of the 17th century BC, they had acquired control of central Anatolia and were attacking cities in northern Syria. In 1595 BC, they captured Babylon, though only temporarily.

But in the 15th and early 14th centuries BC, the Hurrian state of Mitani – also controlled by an Indo-European aristocracy – had the upper hand in northern Syria and Mesopotamia. The greatest of the Hittite kings, Suppiluliumas, sacked the Mitanian capital, and captured northern Syria in 1370 BC. For nearly two centuries, the Hittites were now one of the great powers of the Middle East.

Their main rival was Egypt under the kings of the XVIII and XIX Dynasties. The Battle of Kades in 1286 BC (one of the most famous battles of that time) was between Rameses II and the Hittites, and in spite of the boastful language of the Egyptian inscription. Rameses seems to have been on the losing side. The Hittites continued to control most of Syria.

Hittite dialects were written both in cuneiform and in a new hieroglyphic script. Although many of their writings have been deciphered, they reveal less than impressive things. The Hittites, it seems, excelled at war and little else beyond. Their chariots were formidable machines, heavier than those of Egypt, and manned by three rather than two warriors. Hittite fortifications were also impressive works of martial engineering.

Yet in spite of all their military advantage, the Hittite Empire seems to have fallen early in the 12th century BC, an easy prey to the great invasion of the Sea People (looked at elsewhere on this site). During this time the Hittites virtually disappeared from Anatolia, and their position of dominance was later taken by the Phrygians. A few Hittite splinter states remained in northern Syria, and much of the art that survives the Hittites is from this period. There was also one such state in Jebusite Jerusalem (their rulers are mentioned in the Old Testament). The Hittite history was pretty much forgotten for three millennia until modern archaeologists re-discovered the remains of that civilization.

Sumer and Akkad

Mesopotamia was the first of the great Ancient Civilizations. Its northern area, along the River Tigris, had first been settled during the seventh millennium BC. Various cultures are identified in the next 2000 years, spreading further westward and southward. The ‘Ubeid culture (5500-4000BC) is remarkable for the settlement of arid southern Mesopotamia, using the spring floods of the Euphrates to increase crop yields. New cities sprang up here with names later well known in history, such as Ur, Eridu and Nippur. Eridu had already as many as 4000 inhabitants and its area spread over some ten hectares.

Agriculture was intensified by use of irrigation systems and the plough. A complicated system of radial canals was constructed and maintained. The wheel was invented and boats were being built and sailed. It is interesting that the Sumerians were not great empire builders. During the mid third millennium BC, the rulers of the city of Lagash did manage to spread their rule over all of Sumer, as did the city of Ur later that same millennium. But by and large, the Sumerian civilization was one of independent city states. Their culture and writing spread in the early third millennium BC to the Semitic people who had settled north Mesopotamia known as the Akkadians. Sargon of Agade, an Akkadian king, founded the first empire recorded by history in the mid 24th century BC, and its size and the speed of its creation are impressive. It included all of Sumer, neighbouring Elam, and much of Syria. By 2250BC, this Akkadian empire had been overrun by the nomads of the east.

Sumerian Culture
The inhabitants of southern Mesopotamia called themselves Sumerians. Their language was unrelated to later Semitic or Indo-European languages. Their contribution to the advance of civilization is manifold, but none of its strands can rival that of the creation of the first real states and of the invention of writing in the fourth millennium BC. The first script was pictographic, on clay tables, developing later into wedge-shaped marks called cuneiform script. Some of the signs were used for words and others for syllables. The earliest use of writing was for accounts; but by 2500 BC, it was used already for literary creations.

The story of the Flood is well known in later versions from the Bible. The Tales of Gilgamesh can be read with enjoyment even today. A very few love songs have survived and also some animal fables, several hymns and some lamentations. In the early second millennium, Babylon became the centre of Mesopotamia, under Hammurabi. At this time, although Babylonian rulers used cuneiform script and their culture was deeply permeated by the Sumerian civilization, it was the Akkadian language that became the lingua franca of the Middle East, surviving as such for over a thousand years, and becoming the language of diplomacy.

Writing also enables us today to study some of the other facets of Sumerian civilization. Some of their laws were changed and reused, until they reappear among the laws of Hammurabi and those of the Old Testament. The use of legal precedent began in Sumerian law. The Sumerians did have a moral system derived from their gods. Their temples dominated their towns architecturally and spiritually. The famous Ziggurat of Ur was a three-storied building, 15m high, constructed from mud bricks in the form of pyramidal graduated terraces. It formed a complex of temples and included the royal palace.

Much Sumerian art survives to this day – mainly sculptures and reliefs. It is certainly not as impressive as Egyptian art of the same period, and portrays the Sumerians as rather stocky, round-headed people – not quite in accord with our Greek notions of beauty. But these people were the founders of civilization, for history and literature begin at Sumer.

Sumerian society
There is evidence that the Sumerians had a fairly established school system. Clay tablets have remained from the late Sumerian period giving some indication of what sort of instruction they received. As with most early education systems, it was primarily the sons of nobles who received an education. The upper classes had certain legal privileges not afforded to the rest of society, but even slaves could own property. In this society, women were also not treated as equals. They received half the food allowance that men did, and could be drowned for the crime of adultery (though men were allowed concubines). But they too were allowed to own property and lend money.

Physicians were recognized as a class. Many of their remedies ere recorded (most of their medicines were derived from myrtle, figs, willow, dates and thyme, and mixed with saltpetre or a sodium chloride preparation).

As is so often the case in ancient societies, the king held a supreme position role in religious, martial, and political affairs. Yet there were checks on his power both by law and custom, and as a consequence of the immense economic influence of the temples. For example, private property was considered inalienable, and as such even the king had to furnish remuneration for the ownership or use of land. Hammurabi is perhaps the most famous of Sumerian kings, best remembered for his famed code of laws which survives to this day (though most of the laws on which it was based have disappeared.

Also, contrary to the myth, he did not invent the “eye for an eye” doctrine; it was already firmly established). Apart from being an interesting look at the distribution of political power and ethical norms, the laws also provide some insight into the Babylonian economy. Barley was used as local money, while silver was the currency of trade and commercial calculations. Significant interest was charged on loans (up to a third of the sum in many cases!)

Legacy
Babylon lasted little over a century and a half after Hammurabi’s death. Barbarians from the east overran Babylon, and for a long time thereafter, Mesopotamia was not a major force in history. It is interesting to note that perhaps one cause of its fall was ecological: after two millennia of intensive irrigation, the resulting damage to the soil may have contributed o the collapse of the civilization. .

Early Civilization

The achievements of the Urban Revolution in the Middle East, and the later invention of writing and metallurgy slowly spread throughout Europe and Asia. The period after 5000BC saw a gradual, full transition to agriculture in Western Europe. Forest clearing made room for farming on a larger scale than was managed before, and a subsequent rise in populations, beginning first in fertile river valleys such as the Indus and the Nile regions. We know that the Wheel was in use in Northern Europe by about 4000 years ago, and the horse was being used in Ireland by 2500BC. The third millennium BC saw the widespread use of bronze to make tools and weapons.

Agriculture first came to Africa (mainly north of the Equator) through Egypt from 5000BC onwards. As the Sahara dried out, farmers were forced south. There is an interesting reason why farming spread more slowly to sub-equatorial Africa. The natural abundance of food made farming an unnecessary evolution. It remained for a long time, far less laborious to hunt for food. The same was the case in North America and with the aboriginies in Australia, who never developed agriculture. Europe and Asia for several reasons were optimally “designed” for agriculture, where in other parts of the world it would have been too difficult, or unnecessary.

But it wasn’t a zero-sum game: agriculture or gathering only. In the Steppes of Russia and Eastern Europe, animal domestication appeared first (in 4500 BC) and agriculture came after. Also, the Scythians of the Steppes during the first millennium BC, had a hybrid normadic-agricultural lifestyle. Bronze was in use in the Urals from around 1500 BC. Eastern Europe’s unique position in the Eurasian geography makes it something of a cultural bridge between East and West and this was reflected in how civlization developed there. Initially, most of the influence came from the West (ultimately, the Middle East), but from 1200 BC onwards, we start to see increasing Chinese influence.

Ultimately, the Middle East was the cradle and messenger of Civilization: it did not spring up independently in Europe and Asia, but rather, through conquest and trade, spread outwards from one centre – the Middle East. It took route firmly first in India in the third millennium BC, followed by Crete in the second, and then China a few hundred years after. It was only in the first millennium BC that these civilizations reached a stage of comparable development to those of the Middle East. The process is explored on these pages.